The Arab Open University Intensive English Language Program 98

2005-12-18T22:21:00.000-08:00

To : Mr Yaser ,

Fram : Abdulaziz Al-Saeed , ID:500415

Writing

William Shakespeare

William Shakespeare is an English darmatist and poet . He is considered the greatest playwright who ever lived . He was born in Starford-on-Avon in 1564 . He married Anne Hathaway in 1582 . They had three ehildren : Susanna, and twins, Hament and Judith . He went to London and worked there in a theater . He became an actor and playwright . In 1613, he returned to Startford . In fact, Shakespeare enjoyed a comfortable living throughout his career and in retirement, although he was never a wealthy man.

2005-12-18T21:26:00.000-08:00

To Mr Yaser ,

Fram : Abdulaziz Al-Saeed , ID:500415

Reading

History of Computers

The invention of the computer, apart from what anybody has told you, started around 2000 years ago. The computer started out as an abacus. An abacus is a rack made of wood with two wires running parallel to each other. On the wires there are beads. By moving the beads anyone can solve simple math problems. Next, there was the Astrolabe, used for navigating.
The first digital computer was invented in 1642 by Blaise Pascal. It consisted of numbers entered in dials but, it could only add. However in 1671 a computer was invented that was eventually was built in 1694. The man to credit for this invention is Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz. Unlike Pascal’s Leibniz’s could add and multiply. Leibniz also invented the stepped gear mechanism for the addend digit introduction, and to this day is still being used.
Now, I’m going to show you a timeline of the history of computers.
· In 3000 B.C. the abacus was invented in Babylon
· In 1800 B.C. the Babylonians invent algorithms for number problems
· In 500 B.C. the Egyptians make bead and wire abacus
· In 200 B.C. computing trays are starting to be used in Japan
· In 1000 B.C. a new abacus comes from Gerbert of Aurillac or Pope Sylvester

· In 1617 John Napier, a Scottish inventor, shows how to divide by subtraction and how to multiply by addition
· In 1622 the slide rule is developed by William Oughtred
· In 1624 first four-function calculator-clock is invented at Heidelberg University by Wilhelm Schickard
· In 1642 the first numerical calculating machines built in Paris by Blaise Pascal
· In 1780 electricity discovered by Benjamin Franklin
· In 1876 Alexander Graham Bell invents telephone
· In 1886 first commercially mechanical adding machine that was successful is developed by William Burroughs
· In 1889 Hollerith tabulating machine issues patent
· In 1896 Hollerith constructs a sorting machine through the Tabulating Machine Company founded by himself
· In 1911 a merger of the Tabulating Company formed the Computer-Tabulating-Recording Company. It was also formed from the Computing Scale Company and the International Time Recording Company
· In 1921 in the play R.U.R. by Karel Capek Czech word robot is used to describe the mechanical workers
· In 1925 a large scale analog calculator, the differential analyzer, at MIT is built by Vannevar Bush
· In 1927 the first public radio-telephone becomes operational between London and New York
· In 1931 Konard Zuse builds the Z1 or the first calculator in Germany
· In 1936 Englishman Alan M. Turning made a machine defined to be capable of computing any calculatable function
· In 1937 at Bell Telephone Laboratories George Stibitz builds the first binary calculator
· In 1938 electric equipment is made at Hewlett-Packard Company
· In 1940 the first color broadcast is on TV
· In 1940 through Bell Laboratories remote processing experiments start creating the first terminal
· In 1944 built in England, was the Colossus Mark II
· In 1947 ACM or The Association for Computing Machinery is created
· In 1948 the 604 electronic calculator was introduced by IBM
· In 1951 the first combined computer conference was held
· In 1953 for the Univac, developed by Remington-Rand, the first high-speed printer was developed
· In 1958 in Japan NEC: the NEC-1101 and – 1102 developed the first electronic computer
· In 1960 for the first time ever removable disks appear
· In 1965 the first PDP-8 mini computer is shipped from Digital Equipment
· In 1969 the PDP-11/20, a 16-bit mini-computer, was shipped by DEC
· In 1972 an 8 bit microprocessor is introduced by Intel
· In 1976 Perkin-Elmer and Gould SEL introduce super mini computers
· In 1977 the Apple II personal computer is introduced upon the founding of the Apple Computer
· In 1980 in the U.S. the total number of computers surpasses one million
· In 1983 in the U.S. the total number of computers surpasses ten million
· In 1986 in the U.S. the total number of computers surpasses 30 million
· In 1992 for Workgroup, for windows, is introduced by Microsoft

2005-12-16T21:35:00.000-08:00

to: dr: yaser
from : ahmed nagy abdo tolbah
sbj: writing
id : 500621

Hi I am ahmed Nagy . I love play football every day with my best friend. His name is ahmed allam ,we went to university together . In last summer we travel to Egypt to visit our girl friends. In there we saw ruins of Egypt and went to the museum. There are many nice things. We stayed there for 20 days, it was nice journey. In fact, we were enjoyed it .after that we came back to here to continue our university.

2005-12-13T22:54:00.000-08:00

to:mr yeasr
from:fahad al moeen ID:500581
su:writng

Hajj type

Tamattu` means performing `Umrah during the Hajj season, and on the Day of Tarwiah a pilgrim gets into the state of Ihram for Hajj. Anyone intending to perform a Tamattu`` Hajj should on approaching the Miqat make intention for `Umrah. After fulfilling the Hajj rituals, one should offer a sacrificial animal.
In this type of Hajj, a pilgrim should declare his intention to perform both Hajj and `Umrah together. Only when he throws the Jamrah of Al-`Aqabah, gets his hair shaved or cut that he can put off his Ihram. However, he should offer a sacrificial animal.

2005-12-13T21:04:00.000-08:00

Sto:mr yaser
from:faisal mobarek al-tosali
ID#500758
su=writing

Ford, 92, has been suffering from a cold, but he went to the Eisenhower Medical Center in Rancho Mirage, California, for tests that have been scheduled for some time, said the 38th president's chief of staff, Penny Circle. The results will be released when the tests are complete, she said.
Circle would not say what kind of tests were being conducted, but said that Ford is as healthy as any 92-year-old.
Ford was hospitalized in 2003 after suffering a dizzy spell while playing golf in 96-degree weather.
He also suffered a mild stroke during the 2000 Republican National Convention.
Three other past presidents are living: George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton and Jimmy Carter.
Before taking the country's helm, Ford was a gifted athlete and played for two national championship football teams at the University of Michigan in 1932 and 1933.
He was offered spots on two professional teams -- the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers -- but instead took a position as a boxing and football coach at Yale University, where he was admitted to law school in 1938.
Ford joined the U.S. Naval Reserve in 1942, and had a brush with death during World War II, when he was almost swept overboard during a typhoon in the Philippine Sea in 1944.
After Ford's discharge as a lieutenant commander in 1946, his stepfather, a Republican leader, encouraged him to take on GOP Rep. Bartel Jonkman for the nomination to the U.S. House of Representatives. He won the nomination and later the general election and took congressional office in 1948.
He proved popular with his constituents, who re-elected him 12 times between 1949 and 1973, each time by a margin of more than 60 percent.
His inclusion among the Young Turks -- a group of young, progressive House Republicans who wanted to oust the older GOP leadership -- propelled him to top House positions and earned him a spot on the Warren Commission, charged with investigating the assassination of President John F. Kennedy.
Ford is the last living member of the Warren Commission.
Despite his loyal support for Richard Nixon and high expectations, Ford was never named a vice presidential candidate, but when Vice President Spiro T. Agnew resigned in 1973 after pleading no contest to income tax evasion charges, Ford became Nixon's No. 2 man.
In 1974, Ford assumed the Oval Office after Nixon resigned under threat of impeachment amid the Watergate scandal. Ford took office with the words: "My fellow Americans, our long national nightmare is over," and then made pardoning Nixon one of his first acts. Many people say that doomed his 1976 campaign and handed the presidency to Carter, who served one term as president.
Ford said that he pardoned Nixon solely because the cloud of drawn-out impeachment proceedings would have prevented the country from tending to more important business, but the voters disagreed, and Carter defeated Ford in his only attempt to become an elected president.
The Michigan Republican is the only president to serve without being elected by the voters to the presidency or vice presidency.

2005-12-13T21:01:00.000-08:00

to:mr yaser
from:ibraheem hamad al-hamad
500343
su/writing

Islamic Arab culture

The Islamic Arab culture inherited all what he preceded from the old world heritages and those heritages renewed the Islamic Arab culture and they added to it remaining immortal remarkable additions and this civilization remained the civilization of the only humanity seven complete centuries from the seventh to the after Christ fourteenth and this developed its ascension that its remoteness of stillness stage came from the fourteenth to the after Christ nineteenth, and as for the advancement stage then what the Arabs and the Muslims started was in 19th Century and goes to this day of people that the purposes pushes .And today the world witnesses an unique new scene, the third revolution, the revolution of the science and its applications ( the technology ), the modernism and after it, the responsibility of the human being about the environment, and creation of strong and raw materials and extraordinary energies and cloning kinds and new offspring's from the plants and the animals, and the unity of the market operations and its laws, and the move of the human being from a civilization The writing to the picture civilization, and its formation is held and the bone between all of the nations and the nations and the cultural and cultural buildings and between all of the religions and the doctrines and the religions and creeds depends on the axes, and the purpose of this third stage in the human history - he is the more important and greater stage - the formation of a new life is on the land its columns the argument and the peace and the justice - but the powers of the fading old world fight - fiercely - for the preservation - its sites and its booties, but it reaches those powers other and new and future.

2005-12-12T22:43:00.000-08:00

writting to Mr. Yasser name : Raeed Talal Sairafi -- ID : 500037

Omar Mukhtar

Omar Mukhtar (aka Omar Al-Mukhtar) (1862-1931) was from the tribe of Mnifa, born in a small town called Zawia Janzour. He was the leader of the resistance movement against the Italian military occupation of Libya in the 1920's and 1930's. In 1912, following the Italian capture of Libya from the occupying Turks the previous year, Omar Mukhtar organized and devised strategies for the Libyan resistance against the Italian colonization.
In October of 1911, Italian battleships reached the shores of Tripoli, Libya with an intent to stay. The Italian’s fleet leader “Farafelli” made a demand to the Turks to surrender Tripoli to the Italians or the city would be destroyed at once. The Othman Turks fled and the Italians attacked Tripoli anyway, bombing the city for three days and thereafter proclaiming the Libyan population in Tripoli to be “committed and strongly bound to Italy.” That would mark the beginning of a series of battles between the Italian occupiers and the Libyan Mujahedeen (the Arabic word for freedom fighters).
A teacher of the Koran by profession, Mukhtar was also skilled in desert guerrilla tactics. He knew his country’s geography well, and he knew how to use that to his advantage in battles against the Italians, who were not accustomed to desert warfare. He repeatedly led his small, highly mobile groups into successful attacks against the Italians, after which they would fade back into the terrain. Mukhtar’s men skillfully attacked outposts, ambushed troops, and cut lines of supply and communication. The Italians were left astonished and embarrassed to have been outsmarted and outmaneuvered by a mere “bedouin.”

2005-12-12T22:42:00.000-08:00

reading to Mr. yasser. raeed talal sairafi ID: 500037

Malaysia Malaysia is important to world energy markets because of its 75 trillion cubic feet of natural gas reserves and its net oil exports of over 300,000 barrels per day.
Note: All information contained in this report is the best available as of January 2005 and is subject to change.

GENERAL BACKGROUNDMalaysia's economy continued its strong growth in 2004, with real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) expanding by 7.1%, up from 5.3% in 2003. The surge in growth was largely due to a rapid expansion of the country’s exports, which grew by more than $20 billion year-on-year. Real GDP growth for 2005 is forecast to slip back to a more sustainable 5.2%.
Malaysia 's banking system has been stabilized, after being undermined by a high proportion of nonperforming loans during the Asian financial crisis of 1997-98. The country's banking sector went through a major restructuring in 2000, with many weaker financial institutions being taken over by stronger ones. In order to stimulate the economy, the country's government increased spending sharply in 2001, but in 2003-2004 began to reduce its government budget deficit as a proportion of GDP as demand for exports recovered.
Malaysia has maintained its policy of a fixed exchange rate between the ringgit and the U.S. dollar, which was imposed by Prime Minister Mahathir in September 1998, as part of capital controls designed to stem the outflow of short-term capital in the wake of the Asian financial crisis. Malaysia ’s currency is considered somewhat undervalued at the present exchange rate of 3.8 ringgits to one U.S. dollar. Some of the capital controls imposed in 1998 were relaxed in early 2001, such as the taxes on repatriation of short-term stock market profits by foreign portfolio investors.
Prime Minister Mahathir Muhammad stepped down in October 2003 after over two decades in office. Abdullah Ahmed Badawi, who had previously served as Deputy Prime Minister, succeeded him.
OILMalaysia contains proven oil reserves of 3.0 billion barrels, down from 4.3 billion barrels in 1996. Despite this trend toward declining oil reserves, Malaysia 's crude oil production has risen in the last two years as a result of new offshore development. In 2002, crude oil production averaged 699,000 bbl/d. That figure rose to an average of 750,000 bbl/d for 2004. Total liquids production for 2004 was 855,000 bbl/d, which includes 80,000 bbl/d of natural gas liquids. Malaysia 's oil demand has been growing at a much slower rate that its economic output, due to conservation efforts and the conversion of oil-fired power plants to natural gas.
As a result of the long-term trend toward declining oil reserves, Petronas, the state oil and gas company, has embarked on an international exploration and production strategy. Currently, Petronas is invested in oil exploration and production projects in Syria , Turkmenistan , Iran , Pakistan , China , Vietnam , Burma , Algeria , Libya , Tunisia , Sudan , and Angola . Overseas operations now make up nearly one-third of Petronas revenue. Malaysia exports the majority of its oil to markets in Japan , Thailand , South Korea , and Singapore .
Malaysia 's domestic oil production occurs offshore and primarily near Peninsular Malaysia. Most of the country's oil fields contain low sulfur, high quality crude, with gravities in the 35 o-50 o API range. More than half of the country's oil production comes from the Tapis field, which contains 44 o API oil with low sulfur content. Esso Production Malaysia Inc. (EPMI), an affiliate of ExxonMobil Corporation, is the largest crude oil producer in Peninsular Malaysia, accounting for nearly half of Malaysia 's crude oil production. EPMI operates seven fields near the peninsula, and one-third of its production comes from the Seligi field. The Seligi-F platform, with its 28 wells, is the newest satellite in the Seligi field, located 165 miles off the coast of Terengganu , Peninsular Malaysia. EPMI holds a 78% interest in the project with Petronas Carigali holding the remaining 22%. EPMI began production from the offshore Larut field in Block PM5 in early 2002, which is expected to reach peak production of 140,000 bbl/d, offsetting some of the future decline in Malaysia 's production from mature fields.
In other developments, Sabah Shell Petroleum Company, a unit of Royal Dutch/Shell Group, has raised production at the Kinabalu field to 36,000 bbl/d, as well as 28 million cubic feet per day (Mmcf/d) of gas. Production at Kinabalu, located in the SB-1 block 34 miles off the coast of Labuan , Sabah in east Malaysia , began in December 1997. As operator of the SB-1 block, Shell holds an 80% stake in the block, with Petronas holding a 20% stake. Shell reported two new discoveries offshore from Sabah in 2004, Gamusut-1 in March and Malikai-1 in September. Gamusut-1 lies in deep waters which are the subject of a territorial dispute with Brunei . Both finds are still under evaluation, but are expected to yield significant reserves.
In February 1998, Amerada Hess signed two, five-year production sharing contracts (PSCs) with Petronas for blocks PM304 and SK306. The PSCs commit Amerada to $24.9 million of exploration activities on the two blocks. Under the PSCs, Amerada holds a 70% stake in PM304, offshore Terengganu, and an 80% stake in SK 306, offshore Sarawak , with Petronas holding the remaining interests in both blocks.
In February 2000, Sweden 's Lundin Oil announced that it had signed a sales agreement with Petronas and PetroVietnam which will allow it to proceed with development of its long-delayed Bunga Kekwa project. Production has now reached a peak of 40,000 bbl/d. Lundin Oil is the operator of the field, and Petronas and PetroVietnam hold equity stakes in the project. PetroVietnam, Pertamina of Indonesia, and Petronas concluded an agreement in June 2003 for joint exploration of Block SK305 offshore from Sarawak .
Murphy Oil reported a sizable new find in August 2003 at Kikeh, in Block K offshore from Sabah . Exploratory drilling in the area continues, and Murphy Oil has set a target of 2007 for commercial production. This will be Malaysia 's first deepwater oil production. Murphy Oil was awarded two new exploration areas in January 2003, Blocks L and M, adjacent to Block K. Murphy has reported several new successful wells in these areas in 2004, as well as one in shallow waters near peninsular Malaysia , Kenarong-1. Canadian independent Talisman Oil reported a new find in Block PM305 in shallow waters offshore from peninsular Malaysia in May 2003. Talisman expects the South Angsi field to come onstream in mid-2005, at a production rate of 15,000-20,000 bbl/d.
Refining & DownstreamMalaysia has six refineries, with a total processing capacity of 544,832 bbl/d. The three largest are the 155,000-bbl/d Shell Port Dickson refinery and the Petronas Melaka-I and Melaka-II refineries, which have a capacities of 92,832 bbl/d and 126,000 bbl/d, respectively.
The second phase of the $1.4 billion, 200,000-bbl/d Melaka refinery complex, located about 90 miles south of Kuala Lumpur , commenced operation in August 1998. The 100,000-bbl/d Melaka-II second phase is a joint venture between Petronas (45%), Conoco (40%), and Statoil (15%). This second refinery contains a 62,000-bbl/d vacuum distillation unit, 26,000-bbl/d catalytic cracker, 28,500-bbl/d hydrocracker, 35,000-bbl/d desulfurization unit, and 21,000-bbl/d coker. One of the main purposes of this refinery is to supply gasoline to Conoco's service stations in Thailand and a new line of stations planned for Malaysia . The first phase of the Melaka refinery was finished in mid-1994 and consisted of a 100,000-bbl/d sweet crude distillation unit, which is wholly owned by Petronas and processes Tapis crude oil.
NATURAL GASMalaysia contains 75 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural gas reserves. Natural gas production has been rising steadily in recent years, reaching 1.7 Tcf in 2002. Natural gas consumption in 2002 was estimated at 1.0 Tcf, with LNG exports of around 0.7 Tcf (mostly to Japan , South Korea , and Taiwan ).
One of the most active areas in Malaysia for gas exploration and development is the Malaysia-Thailand Joint Development Area (JDA), located in the lower part of the Gulf of Thailand and governed by the Malaysia-Thailand Joint Authority (MTJA). The MTJA was established by the two governments for joint exploration of the once-disputed JDA. The JDA covers blocks A-18 and B-17 to C-19. A 50:50 partnership between Petronas and Amerada Hess is developing block A-18, while the Petroleum Authority of Thailand (PTT) and Petronas also share equal interests in the remaining blocks. PTT and Petronas announced an agreement in November 1999 to proceed with development of a gas pipeline from the JDA to a processing plant in Songkla , Thailand , and a pipeline linking the Thai and Malaysian gas grids. Malaysia and Thailand will eventually each take half of the gas produced, though initial production will go just to Malaysia . The project had been controversial in Thailand , facing opposition from local residents in Songkla along the pipeline route. In May 2002, the Thai government announced a final decision to commence construction on the project later in 2002, through the pipeline route was altered slightly to avoid some populated areas. Construction has begun, and the delivery of natural gas into Malaysia is scheduled to begin in the first quarter of 2005.
ExxonMobil produces about 335 Mmcf/d at its offshore Bintang natural gas field in the South China Sea , which contains about 1 Tcf of proven reserves. Commercial production at Bintang began in February 2003.
Malaysia accounted for approximately 14% of total world LNG exports in 2003. After much delay, Malaysia is proceeding with a long-planned expansion of its Bintulu LNG complex in Sarawak . In February 2000, Petronas signed a contract with a consortium headed by Kellogg Brown and Root for construction of the MLNG Tiga facility, with two LNG liquefaction trains and a total capacity of 7.6 million metric tons (370 Bcf) per year, which was completed in April 2003. The Bintulu facility as a whole is now the largest LNG liquefaction center in the world, with a total capacity of 23 million metric tons (1.1 Tcf) per year. Most of the production from the new LNG trains will be sold under term contracts to utilities in Japan . Tokyo Electric Power (TEPCO), Tokyo Gas, and Chubu Electric all import LNG from the project. BG signed a contract in August 2004 for supplies over a 15-year period to the United Kingdom , to begin in 2007 or 2008. Shell brought two additional fields online in 2004, Jintan in March, and Serai in September, both of which feed into the Bintulu export terminal. The two fields added over 1 Mmcf/d to Malaysia ’s gas production.
In addition to LNG, Malaysia exports 150 million cubic feet per day (Mmcf/d) to Singapore via pipeline. Surprisingly, Malaysia also is an importer of gas from Indonesia . Petronas signed an agreement in April 2001 with Indonesia state oil and gas company Pertamina for the import of gas from Conoco's West Natuna offshore field in Indonesian waters. The move is being seen as part of a Malaysian strategy to become a hub for Southeast Asian natural gas integration. Deliveries from the pipeline commenced in mid-2003. The pipeline connects to an existing pipeline from the shore to Malaysia 's offshore Duyong field, helped to minimize construction costs.
ELECTRICITYMalaysia currently has approximately 14 gigawatts (GW) of electric generation capacity, of which 86% is thermal and 14% is hydroelectric. In 2002, Malaysia generated around 67 billion kilowatt hours of electricity. The Malaysian government expects that investment of $9.7 billion will be required in the electric utility sector through 2010. Much of that amount will be for coal-fired plants, as the Malaysian government has adopted a policy of attempting to reduce the country's heavy reliance on natural gas for electric power generation, with a goal of increasing coal's share of electricity generation to 30% by 2006, and more thereafter.
The largest thermal project under development in Malaysia is the 2,100-MW coal-fired Tanjung Bin project in Johor province. Sumitomo was awarded a $1.5 billion contract in early 2003 by SKS Power, a Malaysian IPP, for the construction of three 700-MW generating units at the site, with the first unit scheduled to begin commercial operation in August 2006.
In 1994, the Malaysian government granted approval for the massive 2.4-GW Bakun hydroelectric project in Sarawak . Scheduled for completion in 2002, the Bakun Dam had been slated to send 70% of its generated power from Sarawak to Kuala Lumpur through the construction of 415 miles of overhead lines in eastern Malaysia , 400 miles of submarine cables, and 285 miles of distribution infrastructure in Peninsular Malaysia. In addition, expansion plans included a high voltage line south to Johor Baharu and north to Perlis, near the western Thai border. A local company, Ekran, was awarded a turnkey contract to manage the project in January 1995. In 1996, the construction contract went to Sweden 's Asea Brown Boveri (ABB). However, in early September 1997, the Malaysian government announced that it was delaying the project indefinitely, citing an unexpected rise in the dam's cost due to the country's economic difficulties at the time.
In mid-1999, work resumed on the river diversion tunnels, a major component of the project, which has since been completed. The Malaysian government has taken control of the project and negotiated financial settlements with the firms involved. The subsea transmission line concept has been abandoned, and the Malaysian government is exploring the possibility of sales of electricity to Brunei and Indonesia . While it had appeared likely that the project would be scaled back from its 2,400-MW capacity, the Malaysian government announced in February 2001 that it had decided to complete the project on its original scale. Bids were received in July 2002 for the main construction work for the dam, and a construction contract was awarded to a consortium of six Malaysian and Chinese companies in March 2003. Current plans call for the 300-MW generating units to be brought online in stages, with the first capacity to come online in 2007. While electricity demand in Sarawak is modest (currently under 1 GW), the potential to use the electricity to develop a metal smelting industry in Sarawak is largely behind the renewed interest in the project.
Malaysia is considering reforms to its power sector to make it more competitive and lower costs. Currently, three state-owned utilities dominate power generation and distribution in Malaysia . The market was opened to independent power producers (IPPs) in 1994, and 15 IPPs were licensed, though not all of the projects have been built.
Tenaga Nasional Bhd, the main state-owned utility, began in 1999 to divest some of its power generation units. Eventually, Malaysia expects to achieve a fully competitive power market, with generation, transmission, and distribution decoupled, but reform is still at an early stage and the exact process of the transition to a competitive market has not been decided. The issue is still under study, and many observers have voiced caution in light of the experiences of other deregulated utility systems.
Sources for this report include: Asiaweek; Bernama News Agency; Dow Jones Newswire service; Economist Intelligence Unit; Global Insight; Oil and Gas Journal; Petroleum Economist; Petroleum Intelligence Weekly; New Straits Times; Project Finance; The Star (Malaysia); U.S. Energy Information Administration; World Gas Intelligence.

2005-12-12T14:05:00.000-08:00

Mohammad Kibbi
NO. 500774
Mr.Yaser
Days. Sun , wed
Writing
I want to visit United State of America and that for many reason one of them is to show how they deal with others myself, for the information media is not enough to have and experience about any country.
I think when I will visit it also I will see the new Inventions from its source especially in the computer field for it is now very important invention in the world witch change the world.
Also I want to see how the building and the roads and all the arts of rachitic in this country .
For all these reason I have a desire to visit this country and others.
Reading
When considering the fate of the German Dictator Adolf Hitler, one has to realize that the overwhelming majority of my readers believe that he committed suicide during the last days of the Second World War. This view is supported by dozens of books written by among others, world-renowned historians. Their views and conclusions are seemingly well supported by circumstances and eye witness accounts. Just the consideration that there may be another, darker side to the story makes us, to say it mildly, emotionally uneasy. Just the thought that such a man responsible for the murder of millions, might have escaped unscathed from the rubble of Berlin in 1945 seems hard to swallow.

2005-12-12T13:55:00.000-08:00

2005-12-12T13:35:00.000-08:00

Abdullah Mohammed AlShahri
400406
MA4
Dr:Yaseer

Q :

India

[IMG]http://xdrive.alhariq.com/xdrive/id/9140/[/IMG]
The Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the world, dates back at least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the northwest invaded about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlier Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture. By the 19th century, Britain had assumed political control of virtually all Indian lands. Indian armed forces in the British army played a vital role in both World Wars. Nonviolent resistance to British colonialism led by Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU brought independence in 1947.

The population of India is 1,080,264,388 (July 2005 est.). India has famous tourist sites like the Taj Mahal. India has many products like tea and rice. There are a lot of languages in India.

Q :
Inventors of the Modern Computer
The First Freely Programmable Computer invented by Konrad Zuse.
Konrad Zuse (1910-1995) was a construction engineer for the Henschel Aircraft Company in Berlin, Germany at the beginning of WWII. Konrad Zuse earned the semiofficial title of "inventor of the modern computer" for his series of automatic calculators, which he invented to help him with his lengthy engineering calculations. Zuse has modestly dismissed the title while praising many of the inventions of his contemporaries and successors as being equally if not more important than his own.
One of the most difficult aspects of doing a large calculation with either a slide rule or a mechanical adding machine is keeping track of all intermediate results and using them, in their proper place, in later steps of the calculation. Konrad Zuse wanted to overcome that difficulty. He realized that an automatic-calculator device would require three basic elements: a control, a memory, and a calculator for the arithmetic. In 1936, Zuse made a mechanical calculator called the Z1, the first binary computer. Zuse used it to explore several groundbreaking technologies in calculator development: floating-point arithmetic, high-capacity memory and modules or relays operating on the yes/no principle. Zuse's ideas, not fully implemented in the Z1, succeeded more with each Z prototype.
In 1939, Zuse completed the Z2, the first fully functioning electro-mechanical computer.

2005-12-12T12:43:00.000-08:00

dr/yaser class/ma4
ahmed nagy tulbah abdu
The Supreme Council of Antiquities’ efforts enabled the return of the head referred to a 19th Dynasty queen that was illegally sent to London around 1990. The queen is wearing a three sectional wig fixed with a double ribbon, two ornamentations representing the northern and southern crowns decorate the ribbons ending to the extremities with two lotus flowers tied up together. The back column bears hieroglyphic inscriptions that are the queen’s titles and her cultic position.
Stella from Seti I compartment, the depictions represent a deity breastfeeding the (king) and Seti I cartouche, the Stella was found during the last century’s beginning of the forties and disappeared few years later. The Metropolitan in 1998 acknowledged the SCA the acquisition of the Stella that was sent back after Diplomatic settlements 4/8/2001. Limestone, Miet Rahina

2005-12-12T10:06:00.000-08:00

Student name : Saad Mohamed Mousa Al Zahrani
student ID number : 403040
skll : writing

What All Pilgrims do on the Hajj

First, all of the hajjis they wear special white clothes (lhram). Then, they go to the Holy Mosque. They circle the Ka'aba seven times. After that, they seek seven times between As-Safa and Al-Marwah. Then they go to Arafat. At sunset, they go to Muzdalifah. At Muzdalifah, the pilgrims join in the evening prayers, before gathering the pebbles with which they will ritually stone the 'satans' at Mina on the following day. After that, they go to Mina and spend three days there. At Mina, they sacrifice an animal and have their heads shaved. Then, they circle the ka'aba seven times again and the Hajj will be over.

2005-12-12T09:25:00.000-08:00

Student name : Saad Mohamed Mousa Al Zahrani
Student ID number: 403040
Skill : Writing

What All Pilgrims do on the Hajj

First, all of the hajjis they wear special white clothes (ihram). Then, they go to the Holy Mosque. They circle the Ka'aba seven times. After that, they seek seven times between As-Safa and Al-Marwah. Then they go to Arafat. At sunset, they go to Muzdalifah. At Muzdalifah, the pilgrims join in the evening prayers, before gathering the pebbles with which they will ritually stone the 'satans' at Mina on the following day. After that, they go to Mina and spend three days there. At Mina, they sacrifice an animal and have their heads shaved. Then, they circle the ka'aba seven times again Most moving acts of faith in Islam, the hajj is, for those and the Hajj will be over Muslims who can get to Mecca, the peak of their religious life, a moment when they satisfy a deep yearning to behold at least once the Ka'bah - the House of God and the physical focus of a life time of prayer. The hajj is at once a worldwide migration of the faithful and a remarkable spiritual happening that, according to Islamic tradition, dates back to Abraham, was affirmed by Muhammad, and then, by Muhammad's own pilgrimage, systematized into rites which are simple in execution but rich it in meaning. Photo : Dressed in their simple ihram garments, all pilgrims are equal in the eyes of God.

2005-12-12T07:00:00.000-08:00

To Mr. Yasser
Hamad Ibrahim AL-Talasi
500483

writting

King Fahd bin Abdul Aziz

As monarch, King Fahd’s first concern has had to be the security and stability of the country. This is the primary responsibility of any Head of Government but, in the case of Saudi Arabia, the responsibility is of paramount importance since the Kingdom is home to the Holy Cities of Makkah and Madinah and their guardianship is an integral part of the monarch’s responsibility.
Achieving security and stability has not always been entirely straightforward. The demands of modernization have inevitably created tensions from time to time in a conservative society. Striking the balance between those who wish to modernize as quickly as possible and those who are concerned that modernization could threaten the unique character of the Kingdom has demanded a high degree of skill. In exercising this skill, King Fahd has been helped by the tradition of consultation which permeates Saudi society. There have always been channels for every party to express their views. That has not necessarily helped King Fahd to find solutions but it has made him and his Government aware of any problems and sensitive to the balance of opinion on any issue.

In every act of diplomacy, King Fahd has sought to negotiate peace with justice. In the Iraq/Iran war, in Lebanon, in the Gulf war, in Bosnia and, above all, in Palestine, King Fahd has used his good offices to try to find just solutions to intractable problems. Even in the most vexed of issues, border disputes, the Kingdom, under King Fahd, has tried to resolve argument by international arbitration rather than force. The agreement with Yemen on the delineation of the Saudi/Yemen border is a model of the civilized way to resolve such matters.

At the same time, King Fahd has never been an advocate of peace at any price. When circumstances have necessitated it, King Fahd has always been prepared to place his authority behind a just cause and devote whatever resources are required to support it. Saudi troops led the way into Kuwait against the Iraqi invasion force and, whenever the Palestinians have needed help, the Kingdom has been unstinting in the humanitarian aid it has supplied.

It is difficult to find a corner of the world where Saudi Arabia, under King Fahd, has not made a contribution, either in humanitarian aid (which flows forth as soon as a need is recognized) or in promulgating Islam by building Mosques and Islamic centers and by distributing copies of the Holy Quran.

At home, King Fahd’s achievements speak for themselves. Those visitors to the Kingdom who have known the country throughout King Fahd’s reign will attest to the extraordinary development of the Kingdom’s infrastructure, education, health services, agriculture and industry over the last twenty-five years. But King Fahd’s legacy at home is not the buildings, the roads, the ports and airports; it is the people who, through education and social services, have been transformed from simple, generally illiterate, tribesmen or traders into literate individuals capable of holding their own and competing in the modern world.
Of course the foundations for much of this achievement were laid down by King Fahd’s predecessors but the drive and determination to make what seemed impossible happen over the last twenty-five years belonged to King Fahd.

2005-12-12T06:52:00.000-08:00

to mr. yasser
hamad ibrahim al talasi
500483
reading

Saudi Arabia

SAUDI ARABIA OBSERVED in 1992 the sixtieth anniversary of its existence as a state and the tenth anniversary of King Fahd ibn Abd al Aziz Al Saud's accession to the throne. Rather than adopting the title of king, Fahd was styled in Arabic Khadim al Haramayn, or "custodian of the two holy mosques," thereby stressing the Islamic aspect of his governance. In this regard, he echoed the partnership between the religious and political elements of society established in 1744 by Muhammad ibn Saud, the amir (see Glossary) in Ad Diriyah near Riyadh, and Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab, the shaykh who had come to the area to promote the doctrine of the oneness of God in true Islam. As a result of this cooperation and based on the strict Hanbali interpretation of Islamic law, political rule was the province of the House of Saud (Al Saud), whose leader was also given the title of imam, and religious authority was in the hands of the Al ash Shaykh (the family of the shaykh, Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab). This arrangement, however, did not give unchecked political power to the ruler because in accordance with the precepts of Abd al Wahhab, based on the political theory of Taqi ad Din ibn Taimiya, secular authority must conform to divine law and produce civil order in order to be legitimate.
Historically, the collaboration of the Al Saud and the Al ash Shaykh resulted in the Al Saud dominion in Najd, the central region of the Arabian Peninsula, for more than two centuries, except for the brief period from 1891 to 1902 when the Al Rashid exiled the Al Saud to Kuwait. Because it has never been subjected to foreign rule and the consequent dissolution of its homogeneity, Najd has exerted an unusually strong influence on the jurisdiction of the Al Saud. In addition, because the region lacked large cities and the strong leadership they could provide, an interdependent relationship developed among Najdi towns, which paid tribute, and tribes, which provided protection. Traditionally, Najdi political power lay with the tribal shaykhs, who, when they became amirs, or governors of a wider area, endeavored to dissociate themselves from their tribal roles because they were ruling a more diverse population.
The prominence of the Al Saud is reflected in the name Saudi Arabia; the country is the only one to be named for the ruling family. The present kingdom of Saudi Arabia derives its existence from the campaigns of its founder, Abd al Aziz ibn Abd ar Rahman Al Saud, who initially captured Riyadh with his beduin followers in 1902. Thereafter, with the aid of the Ikhwan, or brotherhood, a fervent group of Wahhabi beduin warriors, he retook the rest of Najd, defeating the Al Rashid forces at Hail in the north in 1921, and in 1924 conquering the Hijaz, including Mecca and Medina. Chosen as king of the Hijaz and Najd in 1927, Abd al Aziz was obliged to defeat the Ikhwan militarily in 1929 because in their zeal the Ikhwan had encroached on the borders of neighboring states, thereby arousing the concern of Britain, in particular. In 1932 Abd al Aziz proclaimed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which covered an area approximating to the territory of the present state. The discovery of oil in 1938 ultimately transformed the kingdom and the lives of its inhabitants. During his reign, however, Abd al Aziz sought to obtain "the iron of the West without its ideas," as the king phrased it; he sought to make use of Western technology but at the same time to maintain the traditional institutions associated with Islamic and Arab life.
Upon Abd al Aziz's death in 1953, his son Saud ibn Abd al Aziz Al Saud succeeded to the throne. Saud proved to be an ineffective ruler and a spendthrift, whose luxurious life-style, together with that of the advisers with whom he surrounded himself, rapidly led to the depletion of the kingdom's treasury. As a result, the Al Saud obliged Saud in 1958, and again in 1962, to give his brother, Crown Prince Faisal ibn Abd al Aziz Al Saud, executive power to conduct foreign and domestic affairs. In 1964 the royal family, with the consent of the ulama, or religious leaders, deposed Saud and made Faisal king, appointing Khalid ibn Abd al Aziz Al Saud, another brother, as crown prince.
Faisal, a devout Muslim, sought to modernize the kingdom, especially in regard to economic development, education, and defense, while simultaneously playing a key role in foreign policy. For instance, during the October 1973 War between Israel and the Arab states of Syria, Jordan, and Egypt, Faisal helped to initiate an oil embargo against those countries that supported Israel; the embargo led to the tripling of oil prices. He supported the education of girls and the opening of government television stations to promote education. Tragically, Faisal was assassinated in 1975 by a deranged nephew.
Crown Prince Khalid ibn Abd al Aziz became king (and de facto prime minister) immediately; his brother, Fahd ibn Abd al Aziz Al Saud, served as deputy prime minister and another brother, Abd Allah ibn Abd al Aziz Al Saud, as second deputy prime minister. Khalid dealt primarily with domestic affairs, stressing agricultural development. He also visited all the gulf states, and took a keen interest in settling Saudi Arabia's outstanding boundary disputes, including that of the Al Buraymi Oasis with the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 1975. (The area near Al Buraymi disputed with Oman had been resolved in 1971.) Fahd became the principal spokesman on foreign affairs and oil policy. Khalid's reign was an eventful one; it saw the attempt by strict Islamists (also known as fundamentalists) who criticized the corrupting influence of Western culture on the royal family to take over the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979, riots by Eastern Province Shia (see Glossary) also in 1979 and 1980, and the formation of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 1981.
Upon Khalid's death in 1982, Fahd assumed the throne, with Abd Allah becoming crown prince. Fahd soon faced the impact on the kingdom of the fall in oil revenues, which ended in the 1986 oil price crash. Recognizing the need for a more united Arab front, particularly in view of the deteriorating economic situation, he reestablished diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1987; relations had been broken in 1978 as a result of Anwar as Sadat's signing of the Camp David Accords creating a separate peace between Egypt and Israel. Fahd also played a mediating role in the Lebanese civil war in 1989, bringing most of the members of the Lebanese National Assembly to At Taif to settle their differences.
To understand the forces that have shaped Saudi Arabia in the early 1990s, one must consider the roles of geographic factors, tribal allegiance and beduin life, Islam, the Al Saud, and the discovery of oil. Tribal affiliation has been the focus of identity in the Arabian Peninsula, approximately 80 percent of which is occupied by Saudi Arabia. Well into the present century, several great deserts, including the Rub al Khali, one of the largest in the world, cut tribal groups off from one another and isolated Najd, particularly, from other areas of the country. As a result, a high degree of cultural homogeneity developed among the inhabitants; the majority follow Sunni Wahhabi Islam and a patriarchal family system. Only about 5 percent of the Saudi population adheres to the Shia sect. The Shia, in general, represent the lowest socioeconomic group in the country, and their grievances over their status have led to protest demonstrations in the 1970s and again in 1979-80, that have resulted in government actions designed to better their lot.
Saudi tribal allegiance and the beduin heritage have been weakened, however, since the mid-twentieth century by the increased role of a centralized state, by the growth of urbanization, and by the industrialization that has accompanied the finding of oil. At the same time, the impact of Islam on different elements of the population has varied. Many of the educated younger technocrats have felt a need to adapt Islamic institutions to fit the demands of modern technology. Other young people, more conservatively inclined, as well as a number of their elders and those with a more traditional beduin life-style, have deplored the alienation from Muslim values and the corruption that they believe Western ways and the presence, according to 1992 census figures, of some 4.6 million foreigners (in contrast to an indigenous population of 12.3 million) have brought into the kingdom. Their activist Islamism was reflected in the 1979 attempt by extremists to take over the Grand Mosque in Mecca and by other aspects of the Islamic revival, such as the prominent wearing of the hijab, or long black cloak and veil by women, and the more active role of the Committees for the Propagation of Virtue and Prevention of Vice (mutawwiin) in enforcing standards of public morality. The government found itself caught between these two trends. On the one hand, it feared the extremism of some of the traditionalists, which could well undermine the economic, education, and social development programs that the government had been implementing and which also constituted a threat to internal security. On the other hand, as guardian of the holy places of Islam, the sites of the annual pilgrimage for Muslims the world over, the government needed to legitimate itself as an "Islamic government."
The government therefore has sought to achieve political and social compromises. Repeated announcements have been made regarding the royal family's intention to create a consultative council, first proposed by King Faisal in 1964, as a means of giving a greater voice to the people. On August 20, 1993, Fahd announced the appointment of sixty men to the Consultative Council. Members of the council were primarily religious and tribal leaders; government officials, businessmen, and retired military and police officers were also included. An additional small step was King Fahd's decree of March 1992 establishing a main, or basic, code of laws that regularizes succession to the throne (the king chooses the heir apparent from among the sons and grandsons of Abd al Aziz) and sets forth various administrative procedures concerning the state. Fahd also issued a decree concerning the provinces, or regions, of the kingdom. Each region is to have an amir, a deputy, and a consultative council composed of at least ten persons appointed by the amir for a four-year term. The code does not, however, protect individual rights in the Western sense, as many professionals and technocrats had desired. Rather, it says that "the state protects human rights in accordance with the Islamic sharia."
The Saudi concept of legitimacy is akin to the beduin concept of tribal democracy in which the individual exchanges views with the tribal shaykh. Saudi rulers and most traditionalists reject Western participatory democracy, because the latter establishes the people as the source of decision rather than the will of God as found in the sharia and as interpreted by the ulama. Moreover, in their view, democracy lacks the stability that a Muslim form of government provides. For these reasons, the government has tended to repress dissent and jail dissidents. Such repression applied to students and religious figures who belonged to such organizations as the Organization of Islamic Revolution in the Arabian Peninsula, active in January and February 1992 in criticizing the ruling family and the government.
Socially, the education of girls, although placed under the supervision of the religious authorities, has led over the four decades that girls' schools have existed to a considerable number of women graduates who were seeking employment in various sectors and who increasingly were making their presence felt. This trend occurred at a time of rising unemployment for Saudi males, particularly for graduates in the field of religious studies, and posed a further potential source of dissidence. In addition, growing urbanization was tending to increase the number of nuclear as opposed to extended families, thereby breaking down traditional social structures. There were also indications that drug smuggling and drug use were rising; twenty of the forty executions that occurred between January 1 and May 1, 1993, were drug related.
The Al Saud played the central role in achieving the needed compromises in the political, social, and foreign affairs fields, as well as in directing the economy with the support of the technocrats and the merchants. The control exercised by the Al Saud is demonstrated by the fact that as of 1993 the amirs, or governors, of all fourteen of Saudi Arabia's regions were members of the royal family. Some members of the family, such as King Fahd and his full brothers Sultan, Nayif, and Salman, were considered to be, however, more aligned with the modernizers; King Fahd's half brother Crown Prince Abd Allah, was more of a traditionalist. Specifically, the crown prince enjoyed the support of the tribal elements and headed the Saudi Arabian National Guard, a paramilitary body composed largely of beduin soldiers that served as a counterbalance to the regular armed forces, which were headed by Minister of Defense and Aviation Amir Sultan ibn Abd al Aziz Al Saud. The nation's police force reported to Minister of Interior Amir Nayif ibn Abd al Aziz Al Saud.
The crown prince was also considered closer than the king to the religious establishment, or the ulama. Thirty to forty of the most influential ulama, mainly members of the Al ash Shaykh, constituted the Council of Senior Ulama, seven of whose members were dismissed by the king in December 1992 on the pretext of "poor health." The actual reason for their dismissal was their failure to condemn July criticisms (published in September) of the government by a group of religious scholars who called themselves the Committee for the Defense of Rights under the Sharia. The king named ten younger and more progressive ulama to replace them.
In a further move, in July 1993 the king named Shaykh Abd al Aziz ibn Baz general mufti of the kingdom with the rank of minister and president of the Administration of Scientific Research and Fatwa. Abd al Aziz ibn Baz was also appointed to preside over the new eighteen-member Higher Ulama Council. Based on Abd al Aziz ibn Baz's advice, instead of the Ministry of Pilgrimage Affairs and Religious Trusts, the king created two new ministries: the Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Call, and Guidance and the Ministry of Pilgrimage; this action gave the religious sector an additional voice in the Council of Ministers.
In addition to holding conservative domestic views, the crown prince was more oriented than Fahd toward the Arab world. After the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990, however, he joined the king and other more pro-Western members of the royal family in asking the United States to send forces to the kingdom.
In the foreign policy arena, Saudi Arabia historically has sought to walk a narrow line between East and West. Because of its strong commitment to Islam, the kingdom abhorred the atheist policy of the former Soviet Union and therefore tended to be somewhat pro-Western concerning defense matters. However, Saudi Arabia also strongly opposed what it considered to be the pro- Zionist policy of the United States with regard to Israel and the rights of the Palestinians. At one time, the kingdom had relatively close relations with Jordan, a fellow monarchy, but Jordan's failure to support Saudi Arabia in the 1991 Persian Gulf War soured those relations and resulted in the expulsion from the kingdom of thousands of Palestinians and Jordanians. In the war, Saudi Arabia also experienced a lack of support by Sudan and Yemen, both of which countries it had aided substantially. In 1993 relations with Yemen were somewhat tense because the kingdom expelled about 1 million Yemenis, as well, during the Persian Gulf War. In addition, as of late 1992, Saudi Arabia had revived a dispute with Yemen over an oil-rich border area.
Initially, Saudi Arabia saw both Iran and Iraq as neighbors posing potential threats. After the Persian Gulf War, however, Saudi Arabia's concern over containing Iraq increased, and the kingdom set aside some of its reservations about Iran's form of Shia Islam and began to normalize relations. Despite some border disagreements with its Persian Gulf neighbors, for example, Qatar in 1992 and early 1993, the kingdom's concern for regional security caused its closest relations to be with other members of the GCC; certain tensions existed in the organization, nevertheless, because of Saudi Arabia's position as the "big brother."
Saudi Arabia had taken the lead in 1970 in establishing the Organization of the Islamic Conference to bring together all Muslim countries. In addition, the kingdom followed a policy of supporting Islamic countries in Africa and Asia and providing military aid to Muslim groups opposing secular governments in Afghanistan, Ethiopia, and, formerly, in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (now part of Yemen).
Saudi Arabia's concern for regional security and its active role in supporting the GCC were understandable in view of its relatively small population and the resultant constraint on the size of its armed forces. To compensate for these limitations, the kingdom consistently has endeavored to buy the most up-to- date military matériel and especially to concentrate on developing its air force and air defense system. For more than twenty-five years, Saudi Arabia has had the highest ratio of military expenditures in relation to military personnel of any developing country. Following the Persian Gulf War, the kingdom increased its 1993 defense expenditures 14 percent over those of 1992. Defense purchases included at least 315 United States M1A2 main battle tanks to upgrade matériel of the ground forces as well as seventy-two United States F-15C Eagles and forty-eight British Tornadoes for the air force. Furthermore, the Saudi navy was considered of good quality in relation to naval forces of the region, and the navy's facilities were excellent. In spite of these policies, Saudi Arabia recognized its vulnerability because it has the world's largest oil reserves and extensive oil- processing facilities.
The discovery of oil in commercial quantities in 1938 was the major catalyst that transformed various aspects of the kingdom. The huge revenues from the sale of oil and the payments received from foreign companies involved in developing concessions in the country enabled the government to launch large-scale development programs by the early 1970s. Such programs initially focused on creation of infrastructure in the areas of transportation, telecommunications, electric power, and water. The programs also addressed the fields of education, health, and social welfare; the expansion and equipping of the armed forces; and the creation of petroleum-based industries. From this beginning, the government expanded its programs to drill more deep wells to tap underground aquifers and to construct desalination plants. These water sources, in turn, enabled ventures to make the country more nearly self-sufficient agriculturally; in many instances, however, such undertakings seriously depleted groundwater.
In pursuit of industrial diversification, the government created the industrial cities of Al Jubayl in the Eastern Province and Yanbu al Bahr (known as Yanbu) on the Red Sea (see fig. 1). The government also encouraged the establishment of nonoil-related industries, anticipating the day when Saudi Arabia's oil and gas resources would be depleted. Furthermore, the kingdom also has some promising copper, lead, zinc, silver, and gold deposits that have received little exploitation.
The kingdom's economic plans, including the Fifth Development Plan (1990-95), continued to emphasize training the indigenous labor force to handle technologically advanced processes and hence to enable Saudi Arabia to reduce the number of its foreign workers. The fifth plan also encouraged the creation of joint industrial enterprises with GCC member states and other Arab and Islamic countries and the development of industrial relations with foreign countries in order to attract foreign capital and transfer technology.
Saudi Arabia's economic goals were reflected in the national budget announced for 1993, which set expenditures at US$52.6 billion and revenues at US$45.1 billion, thereby reducing the deficit from US$8.0 billion in 1992 to US$7.5 billion in 1993. The continued existence of a deficit, which has characterized the Saudi economy since 1983, was a source of concern to some observers. Major budgetary expenditure items were US$9.1 billion for education (including funds to establish six new colleges and 800 new schools), US$8.2 billion for public organizations (not further identified), and more than US$3.7 billion for health and social development (including funds for setting up 500 new clinics). Another major expenditure announced in March 1993 was that substantial funds, most of which would be obtained from private borrowing, would be invested in oil facilities in order to raise the kingdom's oil production capacity to between 10.5 and 11 million barrels per day by 1995 and its total refining capacity to 210,000 barrels per day.
The major event affecting Saudi Arabia and other gulf states in the early 1990s was clearly the Persian Gulf War. The effect of that war on the kingdom has yet to be assessed. Financially, the cost of the war for the area as a whole has been estimated by the Arab Monetary Fund at US$676 billion for 1990 and 1991. This figure does not, however, take account of such factors as the ecological impact of the war, the loss of jobs and income for thousands of foreign workers employed in Saudi Arabia and elsewhere in the gulf, and the slowdown effect on the growth of the economies of Saudi Arabia and the gulf states. In most instances, these economies had been growing at a good rate before the war, which tended to deplete or eliminate any accumulated financial reserves.
More difficult to measure, however, was the social impact of the war. Many foreign observers had speculated that the arrival in the kingdom of more than 600,000 foreign military personnel, including women in uniform, would bring about significant changes in Saudi society. However, military personnel tended to be assigned to remote border areas of the country and were little seen by the population as a whole. The net effect of their presence was therefore minimal in the opinion of a number of knowledgeable Saudis.
As Saudi Arabia entered the final years of the twentieth century, there were signs, however, that the expression of public dissent, once unthinkable, was becoming more commonplace. Such dissent was usually couched within an Islamic framework, but nonetheless it represented a force with which the Al Saud had to reckon. King Fahd, now seventy-two, had succeeded thus far in balancing the demands of modernists and traditionalists domestically and in pursuing a policy of moderation internationally. Some observers wondered, however, how much longer Fahd would be able to rule and how adaptable the more conservative Crown Prince Abd Allah would be as Fahd's successor.
August 23, 1993 Helen Chapin Metz

2005-12-12T05:57:00.000-08:00

2005-12-12T00:19:00.000-08:00

To: mr.Hashmi
From: Faisal Baqies ID#: 500487
subject: Reading

Saudi Arabia, officially Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, kingdom (1995 est. pop. 18,730,000), 829,995 sq mi (2,149,690 sq km), SW Asia, occupying most of the Arabian peninsula, bounded by Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait (N), the Persian Gulf, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (E), Yemen and Oman (S), and the Red Sea (W). Riyadh is the capital, Jidda the principal port. Saudi Arabia has five major physical regions: the great Rub al-Khali, a sand desert occupying the entire south and southeast; the Nejd, a vast, barren plateau in the center; the Hejaz and Asir, along the Red Sea, with mountains rising from an arid coastal plain; and the Eastern Province, along the Persian Gulf, site of the country's rich oil resources. The climate is usually hot and dry, although the humidity along the coasts is high. Saudi Arabia has at least one quarter of the world's oil reserves, and the oil industry dominates the economy. Huge revenues from oil exports have been used to diversify the industrial base; metals, chemicals, plastics, cement, and fertilizer are now produced. Irrigation projects have reclaimed many acres of desert, and grains, dates, citrus fruits, and vegetables are grown. Nomadic Bedouins raise camels, sheep, goats, and horses. Income is also derived from Muslim pilgrims who travel from all parts of the world to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The overwhelming majority of the population are Arabs who adhere to the Wahhabi sect of Islam, but 27% of the population consists of resident foreigners. Arabic is the official language.

2005-12-12T00:03:00.000-08:00

To: mr.Hashmi
From: Faisal Baqies ID#: 500487
subject: Writing a letter

dear mr.hashmi
The Spread of Islam From the oasis cities of Makkah and Madinah in the Arabian desert, the message of Islam went forth with electrifying speed. Within half a century of the Prophet's death, Islam had spread to three continents. Islam is not, as some imagine in the West, a religion of the sword nor did it spread primarily by means of war. It was only within Arabia, where a crude form of idolatry was rampant, that Islam was propagated by warring against those tribes which did not accept the message of God--whereas Christians and Jews were not forced to convert. Outside of Arabia also the vast lands conquered by the Arab armies in a short period became Muslim not by force of the sword but by the appeal of the new religion. It was faith in One God and emphasis upon His Mercy that brought vast numbers of people into the fold of Islam. The new religion did not coerce people to convert. Many continued to remain Jews and Christians and to this day important communities of the followers of these faiths are found in Muslim lands.
Moreover, the spread of Islam was not limited to its miraculous early expansion outside of Arabia. During later centuries the Turks embraced Islam peacefully as did a large number of the people of the Indian subcontinent and the Malay-speaking world. In Africa also, Islam has spread during the past two centuries even under the mighty power of European colonial rulers. Today Islam continues to grow not only in Africa but also in Europe and America where Muslims now comprise a notable minority.

2005-12-11T16:01:00.000-08:00

Student: badi mhadi al-bishi
Id : 403019
Day: sat – tue
Time: 5-9
Class on: MA4
Teacher:

reading
King Abdullah Bin Abdul Aziz Abdullah became King of Saudi Arabia on 1 August 2005, following the death . Abdullah Like Fahad , was one of the many sons of King Fahad of his half – brother ibn Saud , the founder of modern Saudi Arabia (Abdullah ,mother was fahad , the eighth of ibn Saud,s16 wives ) Abdullah held important political posts throughout most of his adult life; he became mayor of Mecca as a young man and in 1962 he was appointed commander of the National Guard , a post he was still holding when he became King . He also served as deputy defense minister and was name crown Prince when Fahad took the throne in 1982. Where Fahad was some times criticized for being too fond of western –style luxuries , Abdullah is regarded as devout Muslim and a charismatic leader . After King Fahad suffered a serious stroke in 1995,Abdullah became the facto ruler of Saudi Arabia until claiming the throne a decade later . Extra credit : Abdullah is the sixth King of Saudi Arabia following Abdul Aziz (Ibn Saud, 1932-53), Faisal 91964-75) Khalid (1975-82), and Fahad (1982-2005)…upon taking the throne in 2005Abdullah name another half brother ,Prince Sultan ,as the crown Prince …According to a 2001report in The Christian Science Monitor ,Abdullah "has four wives, seven sons, 15daughters "… some sources list his birth year as 1923, according to a 2005story on C N N.com, "he exact date is unknown because no exact record of births or death were kept at the time in what was then an impoverished desert land ."

2005-12-11T15:59:00.000-08:00

Student: badi mhadi al-bishi
Id : 403019
Day: sat – tue
Time: 5-9
Class on: MA4
Teacher:
Writing
Riyadh City Riyadh (Arabic : ar-Riya) is the capital of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , located in the Najd region ,It is situated in the centre of the Arabian peninsula on a large plateau and is home to over 3,500,000people (14%of the nation ,s population) . Riyadh covers more than 600square miles (1,554km2). The city lies in Saudu asrabia ,s centeral corridor ,of development along with Buriaydah and Al Kharaj in the Ar Riyad administrative division . The other areas of concentrated population are two costal areas –around Jiddah and Mecca on the red Sea , and around Jubail and Dharan on the Persian gulf .Riyadh is located at 24042;42" North , 46 0 43, 27" East (24.711667,46.724167).{1} The city is divided into 17 Branch municipalities under the control of the Riyadh Municipality and the Riyadh Development Authority ,chaired by Riyadh province Governor Prince Salman Bin Abdul Aziz . Although in a highly arid area the city does receive some rainfall . five dams store the run off. There are also 96 wells and 290miles (467Km) of pipe bringing huge volumes of water from desalination plants on the Persian Gulf . History In pre Islamic times the settlement at the site was called Hajar .The is at the confluence of several rivers (now wadis)and much underground water is accessible at the site .The settlement was historically famous for its dates and orchards. Its name derives from the plural of the Arabic rowdhah (place of gardens.)The modern name was first app;ied to only certain parts of the settlement where orchards predominated . Gradually the name was used for the entire settlement . By the end of the 18th century , Riyadh was part of the First Saudi State ,with the capital at Diriyah .After the destruction of Diriyah in 1818by the Turks,The capital moved to Riyadh .Portions of Diriyah ,a city made of mud bricks still exisits . The city was seized in 1902by Abdul Aziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud .He went on to established the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932,with Riyadh the capital of the nation .The diplomatic capital did not move until 1982(from Jeddah). Recently the city has experienced very high rates of population growth ,which is indicated by the poor quality of development since the 1970s.

2005-12-11T12:52:00.001-08:00

The student name : Mohamed Ali Aqeel Al Zobaidi
The student identity card number : 500097

The Holy Month of Ramadan

Ramadan is one of the five pillars of Islam. All adult Muslims must fast during Ramadan. They are not allowed to eat or drink from dawn to sunset. Some people are excused from fasting. Those people are chidren, old and ill people, travelers and wemen who expect babies. There is a special night in Ramadan. It is "Lailatul Qadr" It is one of the last ten nights of Ramadan. Muslims perform special prayers in that night. After the last day of Ramadan , there is Eid Al-Fitr. During the Eid, children wear new clothes and receive gifts. People visit friends and relatives.They thank Allah for his great blessings.

2005-12-11T12:52:00.000-08:00

The student name : Mohamed Ali Aqeel Al Zobaidi
The student identity card number : 500097

The Holy Month of Ramadan

2005-12-11T11:56:00.000-08:00

2005-12-11T11:52:00.000-08:00

TO
YSEER KHALIF
FROM
WALEED HAMEED OBIED AL ANEZI

BIOGRAPHY OF WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

Details about William Shakespeare’s life are sketchy, mostly mere surmise based upon court or other clerical records. His parents, John and Mary (Arden), were married about 1557; she was of the landed gentry, he a yeoman—a glover and commodities merchant. By 1568, John had risen through the ranks of town government and held the position of high bailiff, similar to mayor. William, the eldest son, was born in 1564, probably on April 23, several days before his baptism on April 26, 1564. That Shakespeare also died on April 23, 52 years later, may have resulted in the adoption of this birth date.

William no doubt attended the local grammar school in Stratford where his parents lived, and would have studied primarily Latin rhetoric, logic, and literature [Barnet, viii]. At age 18 (1582), William married Anne Hathaway, a local farmer’s daughter eight years his senior. Their first daughter (Susanna) was born six months later (1583), and twins Judith and Hamnet were born in 1585.

Shakespeare’s life can be divided into three periods: the first 20 years in Stratford, which include his schooling, early marriage, and fatherhood; the next 25 years as an actor and playwright in London; and the last five in retirement back in Stratford where he enjoyed moderate wealth gained from his theatrical successes. The years linking the first two periods are marked by a lack of information about Shakespeare, and are often referred to as the “dark years”; the transition from active work into retirement was gradual and cannot be precisely dated [Boyce, 587].

John Shakespeare had suffered financial reverses from William’s teen years until well into the height of the playwright’s popularity and success. In 1596, John Shakespeare was granted a coat of arms, almost certainly purchased by William, who the next year bought a sizable house in Stratford. By the time of his death, William had substantial properties, both professional and personal, which he bestowed on his theatrical associates and his family (primarily his daughter Susanna, having rewritten his will one month before his death to protect his assets from Judith’s new husband, Thomas Quiney, who ran afoul of church doctrine and public esteem before and after the marriage) [Boyce, 529].

Shakespeare probably left school at 15, which was the norm, and took some sort of job, especially since this was the period of his father’s financial difficulty. Numerous references in his plays suggest that William may have in fact worked for his father, thereby gaining specialized knowledge [Boyce, 587].
At some point during the “dark years,” Shakespeare began his career with a London theatrical company—perhaps in 1589—for he was already an actor and playwright of some note in 1592. Shakespeare apparently wrote and acted for Pembroke’s Men, as well as numerous others, in particular Strange’s Men, which later became the Chamberlain’s Men, with whom he remained for the rest of his career.
When, in 1592, the Plague closed the theaters for about two years, Shakespeare turned to writing book-length narrative poetry. Most notable were “Venus and Adonis” and “The Rape of Lucrece,” both of which were dedicated to the Earl of Southampton, whom scholars accept as Shakespeare’s friend and benefactor despite a lack of documentation. During this same period, Shakespeare was writing his sonnets, which are more likely signs of the time’s fashion rather than actual love poems detailing any particular relationship. He returned to play writing when theaters reopened in 1594, and published no more poetry. His sonnets were published without his consent in 1609, shortly before his retirement.
Amid all of his success, Shakespeare suffered the loss of his only son, Hamnet, who died in 1596 at the age of 11. But Shakespeare’s career continued unabated, and in London in 1599, he became one of the partners in the new Globe Theater [Boyce, 589], built by the Chamberlain’s Men. This group was a remarkable assemblage of “excellent actors who were also business partners and close personal friends . . . [including] Richard Burbage . . . [who] all worked together as equals . . .” [Chute, 131].
When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603 and was succeeded by her cousin King James of Scotland, the Chamberlain’s Men was renamed the King’s Men, and Shakespeare’s productivity and popularity continued uninterrupted. He invested in London real estate and, one year away from retirement, purchased a second theater, the Blackfriars Gatehouse, in partnership with his fellow actors. His final play was Henry VIII, two years before his death in 1616.

Some time between 1585 and 1592, it is believed that Shakespeare left Stratford for London and joined a company of actors as a performer and a playwright. Legend long held that Shakespeare left Stratford because he was being pursued by the law for poaching deer on private property. By 1592 Shakespeare had received some recognition, though not entirely positive, as an actor and playwright. He was mentioned in a pamphlet (A Groats-worth of Wit) written by Robert Greene. Greene refers to Shakespeare as an "upstart crow" in the London theater and charges that Shakespeare was an unschooled player and a writer who used material written by his better educated contemporaries. Also during this year, the theaters in London closed due to the plague. By 1594 Shakespeare had joined a theater troupe known as the Lord Chamberlain's Men. Scholars attribute several of Shakespeare's plays to this time period. Although no one can be certain of the dates of composition for any of the plays, a considerable amount of scholarship has gone into the endeavor of accurately determining an approximate time period during which Shakespeare wrote each play. Some believe that The Comedy of Errors, a farcical play centering on the mistaken identities of two sets of twins, may have been Shakespeare's first play. A few counter that The Two Gentlemen of Verona, which focuses on the conflict between romantic love and friendship, may have been Shakespeare's first play. Some scholars suggest that these plays may have been written as early as 1588 or 1589, while many others date both plays several years later, suggesting that they were written between 1592 and 1594. Other plays written during this early period include one of the history tetralogies: Henry VI, Part One (1589-90); Henry VI, Part Two (1590-91); Henry VI, Part Three (1590-91); and Richard III (1592-93). Many people believe that Henry VI, Part One was Shakespeare's first play. This tetralogy treats the Wars of the Roses, the conflict between two factions of nobles. The last play of the sequence, Richard III, ends with the establishment of the Tudor dynasty, to which belonged Queen Elizabeth, who ruled during much of Shakespeare's life. It is also believed that Shakespeare wrote Titus Andronicus (1592-94), The Taming of the Shrew (1593-94), and Love's Labor's Lost (1593-95) during this period of his life. Titus Andronicus, Shakespeare's earliest tragedy, deals with the cycle of revenge which destroys the families involved in the play's action. The Taming of the Shrew is a lively comedy featuring the willful Kate and her "tamer," Petruchio. Kate's "taming" (her apparent and uncharacteristic submission to her husband) often troubles modern audiences. Love's Labor's Lost has been described as a satirization of the courtly and somewhat artificial love of male nobles, and of the academic pursuits, which were often more fashionable than serious in Shakespeare's time, of the nobility. In addition to these dramatic works, it is believed that Shakespeare wrote the poem Venus and Adonis and began composing his sonnets in 1592 or 1593. He eventually wrote 154 sonnets. Between 1593 and 1594, he probably wrote the poem The Rape of Lucrece.
In 1596 the patron of the Lord Chamberlain's Men (Henry Carey, Lord Hunsdon, the Queen's Chamberlain) died, leaving Shakespeare's company under the patronage of his son, George Carey, second Lord Hunsdon. The next year, Shakespeare bought a spacious Stratford home, known as New Place. Shakespeare continued to be noted as an actor; in 1598 he appeared in a performance of Ben Jonson's Every Man in His Humor, and was listed as a principal actor in the London performance of the drama. Soon after, in 1599, Shakespeare and other members of the Lord Chamberlain's Men leased land for the Globe Theater, which opened later that year. Also in 1599, the poet John Weever published a poem ("Ad Guglielmum Shakespeare") in which he praised Shakespeare as a poet and playwright. During this period of his life, from about 1595 through 1600, Shakespeare wrote a number of plays, including the second historical tetralogy (Richard II [1595]; Henry IV, Part One [1596-97]; Henry IV, Part Two [1598]; and Henry V [1599]) . This tetralogy deals with the events leading up to the Wars of the Roses: Richard II is usurped by Henry Bolingbrook and later assassinated. The new king, Henry IV, worries over his role in Richard's death and about the ability of his "madcap" son, Hal, to rule. A subplot focuses on Hal's wild adventures with the comical knight, Sir John Falstaff. Hal becomes King Henry V after his father's death; he conquers France and restores peace. King John, a historical drama dealing with the reign of King John and the tragedy of the young Arthur, is estimated to have been written between 1594 and 1596. A Midsummer Night's Dream and the famous tragedy Romeo and Juliet were probably written in 1595 or 1596. A Midsummer Night's Dream, a fantastical comedy complete with fairies and magic, deals with such topics as love, imagination, and art. One of Shakespeare's most popular and well-known plays, Romeo and Juliet is the story of ill-fated lovers who attempt to escape the disapproval of their feuding families. The comedies The Merchant of Venice and The Merry Wives of Windsor are believed to have been written between 1596 and 1597. Identified by critics as a problem play (one that raises moral dilemmas which it does not resolve), The Merchant of Venice is like The Two Gentlemen of Verona in that it deals with the relationship between romantic love and masculine friendship; the play also focuses on the theme of mercy. The Merry Wives of Windsor is a farce dealing with middle class life and values; it features the knight Falstaff, who was introduced in Henry IV, Part One as Hal's drunken and wayward companion.
Other plays written during this period of Shakespeare's life include Much Ado about Nothing (1598- 99); Julius Caesar (1599); and As You Like It (1599- 1600). Much Ado about Nothing is the witty comedy featuring Beatrice and Benedick. The play is sometimes considered flawed by critics due to what they and many audiences see as the insensitive treatment of the female characters, particularly the falsely accused Hero. The Roman tragedy Julius Caesar dramatizes the downfall of the title character and examines the nature of political rivalry, ambition, and power. As You Like It depicts the beautiful Forest of Arden as a haven from the trappings of courtly life
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In 1603 Queen Elizabeth died. The new king, James I, granted a license (or patent) to Shakespeare's acting troupe, the Lord Chamberlain's Men. The group needed the patent to be allowed to perform, and in honor of the new king, they renamed themselves the King's Men. It is also reported during this year that Shakespeare appeared in another Ben Jonson play (Sejanus). The plague also struck again, killing at least 33,000 people in London; in 1608 the plague again forced the closure of London theaters. Also in 1608, the King's Men leased the Blackfriars Theater. This was the first permanent enclosed theater in London. From notes in the stage directions, it seems that The Tempest was written with the specific features of the new theater in mind. During this period, Shakespeare wrote a number of plays, including what are considered his best tragedies: Hamlet (1600-01); Othello (1603-04); King Lear (1605); and Macbeth (1605-06). Probably Shakespeare's best known play, Hamlet is like many of Shakespeare's other tragedies in that the theme of revenge takes center stage. But the title character in this drama is paralyzed by indecision and for most of the play he is unable to act on his thoughts of revenge. The play and the issues it raises have been hotly debated by critics for centuries. Othello is a tragedy dealing with jealousy and murder. The title character is a Moor in the Venetian army who is driven into a jealous rage against his wife Desdemona by the scheming Iago. King Lear dramatizes the tragic effects of the king's and the earl of Gloucester's misjudgement of their children. Like other Shakespearean tragedies, Macbeth deals with the theme of ambition. The play also delivers a heavy dose of the supernatural in the form of the witches, or weird sisters, who feed the flame of Macbeth's desire for power. During this period, perhaps between 1600 and 1601, Shakespeare also wrote the narrative poem The Phoenix and the Turtle.
Shakespeare also wrote several comedies during these years, including All's Well That Ends Well (1601-03); Twelfth Night (1601-02); and Measure for Measure (1604). All's Well That Ends Well and Measure for Measure have both been tagged as problem plays. The first comedy ends abruptly with Bertram's sudden acceptance of his wife Helena, whom he had essentially abandoned earlier in the play. In Measure for Measure, deception plays a central role in the play's action; this includes the deception perpetuated by a character depicted as a paragon of virtue, Isabella. Twelfth Night is typically seen as one of Shakespeare's more mature comedies. Like other comedies, it features some disguise and role-playing, such as that of one the central figures, Viola, who disguises herself as the page Cesario. The play also concerns gender roles and class differences.
In this period Shakespeare also produced Greek and Roman dramas, including Troilus and Cressida (1601-02); Antony and Cleopatra (1605-07); Coriolanus (1607-08); and Timon of Athens (1607- 08). Troilus and Cressida, a Greek drama, emphasizes the differences between the ideal and the real by portraying legendary Greek figures as people with less-than-admirable qualities. Antony and Cleopatra is the story of the love and passion between the famous Roman general and the sensuous, legendary Egyptian queen. Coriolanus is a Roman political tragedy dealing with issues of character and pride. Feelings of bitterness and disillusionment permeate the Greek drama, Timon of Athens. Shakespeare also wrote Pericles, Prince of Tyre probably between 1607 and 1608. Pericles is an adventurous tale of a prince who suffers the loss of his wife and daughter, but is, in the end, reunited with his family. Pericles is thought by some scholars to have been a collaborative effort.
After 1608 Shakespeare's dramatic production lessened somewhat. The Globe Theater burned down, but was rebuilt a year later on the opposite bank of the Thames River. During these years, Shakespeare wrote romantic tragicomedies (that is, romances featuring elements of both tragedy and comedy). The romantic tragicomedies include Cymbeline (1609-10); The Winter's Tale (1610-11); and The Tempest (1610-11)., Cymbeline and The Winter's Tale are both stories of loss and pain, but, like Pericles, they end with a happy reunion. The Tempest features
the same elements of loss and reunion, but it also emphasizes the balance of wisdom and power that Prospero achieves at the play's end. It has been noted that The Tempest was probably the last play Shakespeare wrote on his own, and that the character of Prospero, as one who manipulates events, stages masques, and directs the actions of other characters, represents Shakespeare the playwright and his farewell to the theater. During this later period, Shakespeare also wrote two plays that most scholars believe were composed in collaboration with the dramatist John Fletcher: Henry VIII (1612-13), a historical drama, and The Two Noble Kinsmen (1613), the story of the love two men have for the same woman. It is also believed that Shakespeare wrote another play around 1612 or 1613, Cardenio, but it has been completely lost.

Incredibly, most of Shakespeare’s plays had never been published in anything except pamphlet form, and were simply extant as acting scripts stored at the Globe. Only the efforts of two of Shakespeare’s company, John Heminges and Henry Condell, preserved his 36 plays (minus Pericles, the thirty-seventh) [Barnet, xvii] in the First Folio. Heminges and Condell published the plays, they said, “only to keep the memory of so worthy a friend and fellow alive as was our Shakespeare” [Chute, 133]. Theater scripts were not regarded as literary works of art, but only the basis for the performance. Plays were a popular form of entertainment for all layers of society in Shakespeare’s time, which perhaps explains why Hamlet feels compelled to instruct the traveling Players on the fine points of acting, urging them not “to split the ears of the groundlings,” nor “speak no more than is set down for them.”
Present copies of Shakespeare’s plays have, in some cases, been reconstructed in part from scripts written down by various members of an acting company who performed particular roles. Shakespeare’s plays, like those of many of the actors who also were playwrights, belonged to the acting company. The performance, rather than the script, was what concerned the author, for that was how his play would become popular—and how the company, in which many actors were shareholders, would make money.

William Shakespeare died on April 23, 1616, and was buried two days later in the chancel of Holy Trinity Church where he had been baptized exactly 52 years earlier.